Contextual Perspective on Climate-Related Shocks, Coping Strategies and Household Consumption in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA): Trends and Insights

Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) is home-based to some of the world’s underprivileged households, which are often vulnerable to various shocks that can threaten their well-being and livelihoods.^[1–3] These shocks include natural calamities, such as droughts, floods, and storms, as well as economic and social disruptions, such as conflicts, market fluctuations, and health crises.^[4–6] In response, households in SSA use diverse coping mechanisms to mitigate the impact of shocks and maintain their consumption levels.^[7–9]

Research has shown that households in Sub-Saharan Africa depend heavily on informal coping mechanisms such as borrowing from family and friends,^[10,11] selling assets,^[12] livelihood diversification,^[7,13] and reducing household consumption.^[14,15] Social networks, including extended family and community networks, also play a crucial role in offering support and resources during times of crisis.^[16,17] In addition to informal coping mechanisms, households in the region also employ formal financial services, including savings accounts, credit facilities, and insurance, to deal with shocks.^[18,19]

Various studies have shown that the usefulness of shock-coping mechanisms in facilitating household resilience and sustainable development in SSA depends on a range of contextual factors, including the social, economic, and cultural settings in which they are employed.^[14,20] For example, how a shock influences household consumption may vary depending on the household’s income level, education level, access to credit and markets, social network characteristics, and cultural norms around risk-taking and investment.^[21–23] Furthermore, different authors found that households that adopted a combination of adaptation strategies, such as using drought-resistant crops and diversifying income sources, were more resilient to climate shocks than those that relied on a single strategy.^[18,24,25]

Although a substantial volume of literature exists regarding the use and impact of shock-coping mechanisms in SSA, most studies have focused on individual mechanisms or specific contexts, and there is limited synthesis of the overall impact of these mechanisms on household consumption in SSA. Thus, this study conducted a bibliometric analysis and systematic literature review on the influence of shock-coping mechanisms on household consumption patterns in SSA from a contextual perspective. The focus of this study is on the first primary shocks affecting the region, namely, climate-related shocks.^[26–28] Droughts, floods, and other severe weather events, in addition to climate fluctuations, have the potential to result in crop failure, livestock loss, food insecurity, and poverty.^[29,30]

Specifically, this paper addressed the following research question: How do savings, borrowing, remittances, social networks, migration, asset selling, and diversification mechanisms impact household consumption in SSA during climate-related shocks, such as floods, irregular rainfall and droughts? By answering this question, this paper contributes to a better understanding of the complex connections among shock-coping mechanisms, household consumption, and contextual factors in SSA. Apart from the introduction, the second part of this paper comprises the methods, while the third section presents and discusses the results. Finally, the concluding section offers recommendations for future research.

Identification of relevant literature was the first and crucial step in conducting this research. To ensure comprehensive coverage of the literature, multiple search strategies were employed (see Figure 1). The search involved employing a combination of keywords to search electronic databases, including the Web of Science and Scopus platforms, to ensure the wide inclusion of publications in the area of interest. Relevant literature was also identified through the citation tracking of key articles and manual searches of relevant journals.

Figure 1:
Flow chart depicting articles selected for stage 1 (bibliometric analysis) and stage 2 (systematic review).

The search was limited to studies published between 2000 and 2022. First, it allowed for a focus on more recent literature that reflects present issues and trends in the region. In addition, there was a timeframe in which significant changes and challenges, including climate change and economic crises, occurred in the social, economic, technological and environmental landscape of Sub-Saharan Africa.^[31] For instance, climate change has had a disproportionate impact on the most vulnerable individuals and systems in various sectors and regions, including West, Central, and East Africa. The IPCC reported that between 2010 and 2020, the mortality rate resulting from floods, droughts, and storms was significantly greater (15 times) in regions classified as highly vulnerable than in regions with very low vulnerability.^[32]

Finally, it was also a practical consideration, given the large volume of literature available and the need to narrow the search to a manageable scope. Several studies have used comparable timeframes in their systematic reviews or meta-analyses, such as Ngcamu and Chari 2020^[33] and Menghistu et al. 2020.^[34] For the search strategies, we used a combination of keywords to capture the relevant concepts. The Boolean operators “AND” and “OR” were used to combine the search terms and broaden or narrow the search results. The truncation symbol ““ is used to capture variations of a term (“drought” OR “flood” OR “heavy rain” OR “climate shock”) AND (“household consumption” OR “food security” OR “nutrition”) AND (“Africa” OR “Sub-Saharan” OR “SSA” OR “Angola” OR “Benin” OR “Botswana” OR “Burkina Faso” OR “Burundi” OR “Cameroon” OR “Cape Verde” OR “Central African Republic” OR “Chad” OR “Comoros” OR “Congo” OR “Côte d’Ivoire” OR “Djibouti” OR “Guinea” OR “Eritrea” OR “Ethiopia” OR “Gabon” OR “The Gambia” OR “Ghana” OR “Kenya” OR “Lesotho” OR “Liberia” OR “Madagascar” OR “Malawi” OR “Mali” OR “Mauritania” OR “Mauritius” OR “Mozambique” OR “Namibia” OR “Niger” OR “Nigeria” OR “Réunion” OR “Rwanda” OR “Sao Tome and Principe” OR “Senegal” OR “Seychelles” OR “Sierra Leone” OR “Somalia” OR “South Africa” OR “Sudan” OR “Swaziland” OR “Tanzania” OR “Togo” OR “Uganda” OR “Western Sahara” OR “Zambia” OR “Zimbabwe”)

The search results were screened for relevance based on the inclusion criteria, which included studies that focused on climate-related shocks, coping mechanisms, household consumption, and SSAs. Studies that did not fulfill the specified inclusion criteria were omitted. The screening was conducted in two stages, with the first stage involving selecting all papers as long as they met the requirement of having at least two keywords present in either the titles and/or abstracts. The second stage involved screening and selecting publications included in the deep literature review analysis. To ensure the reliability and validity of the screening process, two independent reviewers screened the literature, and any disagreements were resolved through discussion and compromise. Furthermore, a third reviewer was consulted when a consensus could not be reached. Previous studies, including Akinyi et al. 2021^[35] and Thompson et al. 2010,^[36] have used similar screening processes.

The extracted data included details regarding the research design, types of shocks, coping mechanisms, and effects of these coping strategies on household consumption, nutrition and food security. Previous studies have utilized similar approaches.^[37,38]

In the bibliometric analysis, data analysis was conducted to examine the keywords used in the title, abstract, and keyword sections of the bibliographic records using the R package litsearchr developed by Grames et al. 2019.^[39] This provided insights into the main themes and topics covered in the literature. Additionally, publication trends were analyzed to understand the growth of research in this area, identifying periods of increased interest or shifts in research focus. Furthermore, co-authorship and collaboration analyses were performed to uncover the networks and relationships among researchers working on this topic using the VOSviewer tool.^[40,41] However, in the in-depth literature review, the data analysis involved thematic analysis. This process identified common themes and patterns across the selected literature, enabling the categorization and grouping of findings based on similarities and differences. Subsequently, a synthesis of the extracted data and thematic analysis were carried out to provide a wide-ranging overview of the main insights from the literature.^[42]

Figure 2 shows the trend in publications for the period from January 2000 to December 2022. Three distinct periods can be observed: 2000-2008, 2009-2014, and 2015 to 2022. During the initial period, the research field attracted minimal academic attention, with an average of 11 publications per year. This could be explained by the limited advancement of technology, inadequate networking opportunities, and insufficient collaborative research funding throughout Sub-Saharan African universities.^[43,44] In the second period, the topic becomes more relevant, with an average of almost 36 papers per year. Nevertheless, in the third period, we observed more studies, with an average of 113 per year. These findings could be attributed to the awareness of the region’s vulnerability to various shocks,^[3,45] advancements in technology and improved networking opportunities in Sub-Saharan African institutions.^[46,47]

Figure 2:
Trend in publications about shock-coping mechanisms, household consumption, and contextual factors in SSA.

Table 1 presents the evolution of key research themes over three distinct periods: 2000-2008, 2009-2014, and 2015-2022. Several noteworthy trends were observed in the data (Table 1 and Figure 3). Across all periods, climate change and drought displayed a consistent presence across all periods, demonstrating their sustained relevance in research discourse in SSA. The percentage of articles discussing climate change increased from 9.2% in 2000-2008 to 39.9% in 2015-2022, reflecting a substantial uptrend in addressing this critical concern. Drought, which scored the highest percentage in all periods (91.8% to 83.5%), remains a dominant focus, emphasizing the persistent need to understand its impacts and mitigation strategies.

Figure 3:
Co-occurrence analysis.

Among coping mechanisms, diversification and migration in articles remained relatively stable. However, the slight fluctuations might indicate shifts in research focus, possibly influenced by evolving socioeconomic and environmental contexts in SSA. Social network, a relatively recent key term, increased attention, primarily in the last period (1.0%), highlighting its increasing role in climate-related research. Climate crisis-induced impacts on household consumption, especially nutrition and food security, have gained increasing attention from research scholars, policy makers, and funding agencies. This has led to a considerable number of publications centered on drought and food security in Sub-Saharan African countries.^[48,49]

Table 2 shows the top 10 most productive journals during the period of 2000-2022, with a minimum of 15 total publications, providing valuable insights across a range of fields. It becomes evident that certain journals play a pivotal role in shaping the discourse around climate-related challenges and coping strategies in Sub-Saharan Africa. Food security stands out not only for its significant contribution (8.68% of total papers) but also for its high citation percentage (18.01%), indicating the depth and impact of its published research. This suggests a concentrated focus on substantive issues such as food security and climate resilience within the region. Sustainability, another prominent journal, contributed 16.08% of the total papers, although with a slightly lower citation percentage (14.28%), suggesting a broader array of topics related to sustainability and climate adaptation.

In addition, journals such as Climatic Change (4.82% of total papers, 11.31% citation percentage) reflect a more specialized focus on climate dynamics. Conversely, journals such as World Development and Remote Sensing demonstrate a balanced approach with moderate contributions (both 5.14% of total papers) and citation percentages (2.73% and 4.82%, respectively). The diverse representation of journals indicates a multidisciplinary exploration of climate-related challenges, including agriculture, environmental sciences, and development. This diversification highlights the comprehensive efforts within the scholarly community to understand, cope with, and mitigate the impacts of climate-related shocks in the unique context of Sub-Saharan Africa.^[1,3,18,28]

Table 3 shows that the top 10 most productive authors between 2000 and 2022, while individually contributing a significant number of papers, account for relatively low percentages when considering the overall body of literature. For instance, Funk, C., the most prolific author, contributed to 1.26% of the total papers, highlighting the distributed effort among researchers in addressing the topic. Examining the percentage of total citations provides insights into the impact of these authors’ works. Authors such as Funk, Shukla, and Cisse, despite their relatively low individual paper percentages, have made substantial impacts, garnering citations ranging from 0.99% to 1.79%. This suggests that their contributions are highly influential within the academic community, indicating the quality and relevance of their research.

Furthermore, the presence of multiple authors with similar paper percentages (ranging from 0.54% to 0.83%) emphasizes collaborative synergy within this research domain. This shared effort, as indicated by the combined percentages of these authors, signifies a collective approach to tackling the complex issues surrounding climate-related shocks and household consumption in Sub-Saharan Africa. This collaborative spirit likely promotes interdisciplinary research, allowing for a comprehensive exploration of the challenges faced by households in the region and reflecting the interconnectedness and interdependence within the scientific community addressing this critical topic.

Figure 4 shows a co-authorship analysis generated using VOSviewer. The connections between nodes in the graph represent the co-authorships, with the color of the links indicating the year in which the collaboration between the authors was established. Out of a total of 10094 connections, only 401 connections met the minimum threshold of 3 connections for an author’s documents. Notably, authors such as Funk, C., Shukla, S., and Husak, G. were identified as having greater total link strength in terms of collaboration with other researchers.

Figure 4:
Co-authorship and collaboration analysis.

Table 4 presents a comprehensive overview of the most cited articles in the area. First and foremost, the diversity of the topics covered in these highly cited articles is striking. From agricultural resilience (“Beans (Phaseolus spp.)-model food legumes,”“Farmers’ Perceptions of Climate Change and Agricultural Adaptation Strategies in Rural Sahel”) to hydroclimatic alterations (“A westward extension of the warm pool leads to a westward extension of the Walker circulation, drying eastern Africa,”“A drought monitoring and forecasting system for Sub-Saharan African water resources and food security”), these studies collectively paint a holistic picture of the multifaceted impact of climate change in the region. This diversity reflects the complexity of the challenges faced and the need for multidisciplinary approaches to address them effectively.

Furthermore, the consistent publication of high-impact studies from 2003 to 2019 highlights the enduring relevance of research in this area. The long-term nature of these studies underscores the sustained effort and commitment of researchers to understanding climate-related issues in Sub-Saharan Africa. This continuity in research demonstrates the persistent need to explore innovative solutions, adapt strategies, and enhance resilience in the face of changing climatic conditions.

Last, the substantial citation counts for these articles signify their significant influence within the academic community. Particularly noteworthy are studies such as “Beans (Phaseolus spp.)-model food legumes” and “Warming of the Indian Ocean threatens eastern and southern African food security but could be mitigated by agricultural development,” which have attracted considerable attention and recognition. These high citation numbers indicate the substantial impact of these studies on subsequent research, policymaking, and practical interventions, emphasizing their pivotal role in shaping the discourse around climate adaptation, food security, and coping mechanisms in Sub-Saharan Africa.

Table 5 provides a valuable snapshot of the geographic origins of research efforts focused on climate-related challenges in Sub-Saharan Africa. In this subsample drawn from Scopus data, the United States emerges as a major contributor, accounting for a substantial 12.91% of the total papers analyzed. The high citation percentage (20.20%) associated with U.S. research highlights the impactful nature of these contributions. South Africa constituted 12.53% of the total papers, reinforced the continent’s internal collaboration, and showed a strong emphasis on local expertise. Additionally, Ethiopia’s active participation (6.22%) illustrates the country’s dedication to addressing climate-related challenges, emphasizing the regional depth of the research efforts with the challenges faced in the region. Additionally, the diverse insights brought by countries such as the United Kingdom, Germany, and China further enrich the discourse, emphasizing the collaborative and interdisciplinary nature of research in addressing climate-related shocks and coping strategies in Sub-Saharan Africa.

The impact of shock-coping mechanisms on food security and household consumption in Sub-Saharan Africa is a critical aspect that has been extensively explored. Over the past two decades, research has consistently highlighted the increasing frequency and intensity of climate-induced shocks, such as droughts, irregular rainfall, and floods.^[27,50]

The quantitative research designs of thirty papers (Table 6) have shed light on the influence of climate-associated shocks on households. Studies by Njeru et al. 2022,^[51] Mekuria and Mekonnen 2018,^[52] and Twongyirwe et al. 2019^[53] emphasized the significance of agro-pastoral activities, livestock ownership, and access to credit in ensuring household food security. They highlighted the importance of diversified livelihoods in managing food insecurity. Weather-related shocks, such as droughts and irregular rainfall, have been shown by Akampumuza and Matsuda 2016^[54] and Atara et al. 2021^[55] to negatively affect household consumption and food security. For example, Akampumuza and Matsuda 2016^[54] reported a 17% reduction in consumption due to weather-related shocks, while Atara et al. 2021^[55] noted that 62.4% of surveyed households experienced food insecurity, leading to a significant increase in stunting and obesity. In addition, Ncube et al. 2018^[56] and Akampumuza and Matsuda 2016^[54] highlighted the disproportionate impact of weather-related shocks on households led by women, with female-headed households experiencing more substantial declines in consumption than male-headed households. Weather shocks have exhibited varied effects on vulnerability across different studies. Yuen et al. 2022,^[57] Letta et al. 2018,^[58] and Montaud et al. 2017^[59] have shown that weather shocks, particularly droughts, adversely affect household consumption, prices, and food security. These shocks led to reduced agricultural productivity and increased vulnerability, particularly among rural households. Letta et al. 2018^[58] stressed the importance of livestock in rural households, as livestock assets play a vital role in providing income and food security, particularly during times of shocks, such as failed crops. Furthermore, Carter and Lybbert 2012,^[60] Temesgen et al. 2022,^[61] and Yuen et al. 2022^[57] explored the impact of various coping mechanisms, such as asset smoothing, food security services, migration, and mobile money services, on household consumption patterns and resilience to climate shocks.

Considering multi-quantitative research designs, twelve studies generally agreed on the importance of climate shocks, particularly droughts, and their negative impact on households’ welfare, income, and food security. Cash transfers and social capital appeared to be effective coping mechanisms for alleviating the adverse effects of shocks, especially in rural areas. In addition, these studies recognized the significance of livelihood diversification and agricultural productivity in building resilience against shocks. The positive impacts of cash transfers on household consumption and coping mechanisms have been shown in several studies.^[62,63] The results from Amare et al. 2018^[64] and Baffour-Ata et al. 2021^[65] underlined the need for adaptation mechanisms such as the use of drought-resistant crop diversity and diversification to enhance resilience among agro-pastoral communities. For instance, Giannini et al. 2017^[63] and Porter 2012^[13] highlighted the impact of extreme rainfall fluctuations on consumption, indicating that households struggle to smooth their consumption against such shocks. Furthermore, Premand and Stoeffler 2021^[62] and Mueller et al. 2020^[66] found that cash transfers and social capital, respectively, play crucial roles in enhancing households’ resilience to climate shocks. Moreover, Lokonon 2019^[67] and Belle et al. 2017^[68] highlighted the importance of neighborhood involvement and financial resources in drought preparedness and resilience-building. In contrast, Baffour-Ata et al. 2021^[65] and Mueller et al. 2020^[66] reported contrasting findings regarding the impact of climate shocks on rural and urban out-migration, respectively, challenging the narrative that the main effect of climate change will be on the rates of out-migration from rural regions.

In the context of multi-qualitative methods research design, the key findings of the five papers are compared. All five papers recognized drought as a major climate shock affecting rural communities. They noted the negative consequences of drought, such as crop failure, water scarcity, food scarcity, and loss of livestock. These studies emphasized the adoption of strategies to cope with and adapt to changes in food consumption habits, crop-livestock integration, knowledge sharing through community organizations, and the acquisition of new knowledge about early warning systems. All the studies discussed drought as a significant shock; two of them, Hawkins et al. 2022^[69] and Mdemu 2021,^[70] focused primarily on drought, while the other two studies, Liru and Heinecken 2021^[71] and Afriyie et al. 2017^[72], addressed flooding. Liru and Heinecken 2021^[71] specifically concentrated on women’s coping strategies, highlighting their use of indigenous knowledge, social capital, and agency to adapt to climate change. Mdemu 2021^[70] emphasized how vulnerability to drought is linked to a household’s social context, involving aspects such as resource ownership and income streams. The studies by Afriyie et al. 2017^[72] and Okunlola et al. 2019^[73] extensively discussed policy implications, including the need for gender-sensitive interventions and targeted policies to address vulnerable segments of society.

Within the domain of mixed research design, the main emphasis is placed on comparing the key findings of fifteen studies that have incorporated both quantitative and qualitative methods in their investigations. The prevalence of food insecurity varied among the studies, with rates ranging from 21% to 92.9%. The differences may be attributed to variations in the study populations, locations, and methodologies used. For instance, Bahta 2022^[74] and Asefawu 2022^[75] both examined coping mechanisms for food insecurity in the face of agricultural drought. Bahta 2022^[74] described various coping mechanisms utilized by smallholder livestock farming households, including selling livestock, using alternative land, storing food, and seeking alternative employment. Asefawu 2022^[75] identified coping strategies such as food aid, the use of traditional cereals and drought-tolerant crops, and livelihood diversification. In addition, Hilemelekot et al. 2021^[76] and Mavhura et al. 2015^[77] both examined the influence of the changing climate and its fluctuations on household food security. Hilemelekot et al. 2021^[76] highlighted the importance of access to training, access to credit, farm size, and extension advisory services in determining farmers’ climate change adaptation options. Moreover, Mekonnen et al. 2021^[78] demonstrated that access to climate instability adaptation technologies and the size of farmland significantly influenced the food security status of households. Finally, Ngure et al. 2020^[79] and Mushore et al. 2021^[80] focused on specific adaptation strategies to address climate instability and food insecurity. Both studies emphasized the importance of localized and targeted adaptation measures to enhance food security.

Recent findings from research design employing perspectives in the setting of agriculture, shocks, coping mechanisms, food security, and household consumption have shown common trends and unique insights. All the research designs highlighted the increasing frequency and intensity of climate-driven shocks, particularly droughts, and their detrimental impact on household welfare and food security. Coping strategies, such as seeking nonfarm employment, borrowing, diversifying livelihoods, and adopting climate adaptation options, are identified across studies to manage the effects of shocks on household consumption. Overall, these studies collectively highlighted the importance of context-specific interventions to enhance resilience and food security in SSA. The findings from these diverse research designs contribute to our understanding of the complex implications of climate change and offer valuable insights into the obstacles associated with food security and adaptation in vulnerable regions in SSA.

In conclusion, this bibliometric systematic literature review illuminates the profound impact of climate-related shocks and coping mechanisms on household consumption in Sub-Saharan Africa. By integrating newly formulated theoretical contributions, our study not only underlines the severity and frequency of climate-induced shocks but also emphasizes the critical role of coping strategies in mitigating their effects on food security and consumption patterns. Through a comprehensive analysis of 1219 papers from 2000 to 2022, this research provides valuable insights into the evolving trends and persistent challenges faced by communities in the region.

Our findings reveal a concerning increase in the frequency and intensity of climate-induced shocks, particularly droughts, floods, and irregular rainfall, significantly impacting household consumption and food security. The sustained relevance of climate change and drought across different periods underscores the pressing need to address these critical concerns in Sub-Saharan Africa. Additionally, the emergence of coping mechanisms such as livelihood diversification, migration, and climate adaptation measures highlight the resourcefulness and adaptability of communities in the face of environmental challenges.

Importantly, this study contributes to new knowledge in the domain by clarifying variations in the effectiveness of coping strategies across different contexts and regions in Sub-Saharan Africa. By emphasizing the significance of gender-specific vulnerabilities and coping capacities, particularly for female-headed households, our research highlighted the importance of tailored interventions to address the diverse needs of vulnerable populations. Furthermore, the identification of livestock ownership, rural diversification, and credit access as resilience-building factors adds to our understanding of effective coping mechanisms in the region. The integration of newly formulated theoretical contributions enriches the scholarly discourse on climate-related challenges and coping strategies in Sub-Saharan Africa. By synthesizing insights from bibliometric and thematic analyses, our study offered a comprehensive overview of the complex dynamics shaping household consumption patterns in the region. Moreover, our research highlighted the need for interdisciplinary approaches to address the multifaceted impacts of climate change on food security and consumption in SSA.

Moving forward, our findings strongly motivate the academic community toward actionable and practically engaged scholarship by highlighting the need for collaborative research endeavors that bridge disciplinary boundaries and leverage local expertise to develop context-specific solutions. However, it is important to note that this study considered only papers published in journals; therefore, further research could explore a wider range of sources, such as book chapters, conference proceedings, and other scholarly materials, to provide a more comprehensive analysis of the subject. Nonetheless, this study provides a significant contribution to the literature by offering insights into the relationships between climate change, coping strategies, and household welfare.

For policymakers in the government, the implications of this study are crucial. First, the need for developing climate-resilient infrastructure, such as flood control measures, and drought-resistant agricultural practices. These initiatives are essential in mitigating the adverse effects of climate shocks on household consumption and food security. Second, recognizing the gender-specific vulnerabilities, especially among female-headed households, government policies should focus on creating and implementing targeted support programs. Such programs could include training in diversified livelihoods, and the provision of social safety nets to enhance their resilience against climate-induced shocks. For Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) and development agencies, the focus should be community-based adaptation programs that promote livelihood diversification and climate adaptation measures. These programs should leverage local knowledge and resources to develop sustainable coping strategies that can be scaled and adapted to different regions within Sub-Saharan Africa. Furthermore, academic and research institutions also play a pivotal role in addressing the multifaceted impacts of climate change by promoting interdisciplinary research initiatives that bring together experts from various fields, including climate science, economics, sociology, and agriculture. Collaborative research can lead to the development of holistic and effective interventions for improving food security and household welfare.

However, it is important to note that this study considered only papers published in journals; therefore, further research could explore a wider range of sources, such as book chapters, conference proceedings, and other scholarly materials, to provide a more comprehensive analysis of the subject. Nonetheless, this study provides a significant contribution to the literature by offering insights into the relationships between climate change, coping strategies, and household welfare.

I would like to extend my heartfelt gratitude to the African Centre of Excellence in Data Science for their invaluable support and resources. Special thanks go to Dr. Pontien Niyonzima and Dr. Silas Nsanzumuhire for their exceptional insightful feedback throughout this research paper.